Towards convergence of the European activation policies?
Amparo Serrano Pascual

1. Introduction
Activation is a key notion in the European employment strategy, and the 
cornerstone of the European social model as presented by the European 
Institutions. It is a principle that has become central to the process of 
adapting our European societies to changes in production models, changes 
which have been conceptualised by the European institutions by means of 
repeated reference to the "movement towards a knowledge-based society". 
The principle of activation is used to make transformation 
("modernisation") of the welfare state into the condition for adaptation of 
the European social model to the new conditions of production. Insofar as 
the process of change is presented as a fact of nature, renovation of the 
social model becomes an incontrovertible necessity.

This book set out to analyse the extent to which this type of discourse and 
practice, as promoted by the European institutions, has exerted an 
influence on national policies and whether or not we are witnessing a 
process of convergence in the ways in which this particular mode of 
intervention  is being implemented.

The comparative analyses presented in the preceding chapters evidence the 
difficulty of reaching unequivocal conclusions as to whether the 
employment policies inspired by the activation paradigm have evolved in a 
convergent direction as a result of the employment strategy promoted by 
the European institutions. While some of the contributors to this book tend 
to stress the differences in the ways in which the principle is implemented, 
attributing them to fundamentally differing social models and political 
traditions (institutionally path and past dependent)(for example Barbier in 
this volume), others lay more emphasis on the fact that we are witnessing 
an important process of convergence in activation models (e.g. Lindsay and 
Mailand). Whatever the overall emphasis, both positions coincide in 
stressing that we are witnessing a process of the incorporation into social 
policy of the concept of activation, and that this is a tendency shared by 
various European countries.

A major reason for the polar opposition in positions (between those which 
stress convergence and, on the other hand, those which focus on specific 
modes of adapting the activation model) is that different aspects of the 
process are being emphasised. It may accordingly be said that we are 
simultaneously witnessing a process of convergence and a process of 
divergence, depending on which dimension of the concept of activation is 
being accorded priority. Indeed, an important aspect of many of the studies 
of activation is the limited discussion devoted to the initial concept, 
resulting in different conclusions depending on how the term activation is 
being understood. Hence the importance of analysing the many and varied 
accreted meanings associated with the notion, which we shall attempt to 
deconstruct below.

2. Semantic range of the notion of activation
The concept of activation is extremely fashionable in political discourse, but 
also in the scientific literature dealing with the changes affecting our 
western societies. In spite of the popularity of the concept, the real 
meaning to be attributed to the term is rarely discussed. Yet this semantic 
confusion can be particularly pernicious when it comes to an attempt to 
explain the direction in which we are moving. The facts to which the notion 
of activation is taken to refer are of such very different orders that the 
concept begins to forfeit semantic differentiation. Is activation a method 
(ways of raising incentives for people to enter the labour market and to 
regulate the behaviour of job-seekers)? Is it a goal (increasing the activity 
rate)? Or a project (adaptation of national systems to the challenges linked 
to the emergence of a new production model)? An ethic (fight against 
dependence)? An ideology ( rearticulation of the representation of the social 
question)? etc. The concept acquires variable connotations depending on 
the political context in which it is used. Accordingly, when analysing 
whether the general trend is one of convergence or divergence in terms of 
how the principle of activation is being adapted, it is necessary to 
understand to what aspect of the concept we are referring.

Activation is frequently observed  as a goal and the problem in this case is 
to distinguish between what belongs to the order of reasons and what to the 
order of explanations. The notion is understood, in this case, as the 
mobilisation of unemployed persons with a view to facilitating their 
incorporation into the labour market. This mobilisation may, in turn, be a 
response to a twofold goal: to combat social exclusion (which has been 
linked to long-term unemployment) and/or to achieve the availability of a 
wide reservoir of labour (increase the activity rate). This second goal may, 
in turn, be presented in either of two versions: those which see an increase 
in the activity rate as a sine qua non condition of the viability of the social 
model; and those which regard the availability of a reserve army of labour 
as a prerequisite for economic competition. 

Another way to understand the concept of activation is in terms of a 
method. Here what is emphasised is the incentive nature of the measures, 
whether or not accompanied by a compulsory aspect, which depends on the 
country. In all the countries discussed in this volume there has taken place, 
at any rate, a process of revision of the rules governing incentives to work 
accompanied by limitation of unemployment benefits. On the one hand, 
limits have been set on the level and duration of benefits while, on the 
other, the conditions for eligibility have been stepped up. The purpose of 
these changes in the extent and nature of unemployment benefits has been 
to encourage people to take up work. In many cases penalty mechanisms 
have been introduced, together with a work requirement on claimants.

The notion of activation has also been used in a more general fashion to 
designate a principle of modernisation and as the condition for adaptation 
of our national systems to contemporary socio-economic circumstances. 
Under this principle work becomes a central value, not only for the social 
and economic set-up but also for the subject. Activation thus comes to be 
understood as a way of fighting the dependency generated by earlier forms 
of intervention and as a means of stimulating workers to develop "psycho-
social competences". It is thus intended as a principle designating the need 
to affirm and enable autonomy of the subject.

Finally, a notion less explored to date is that of activation as an ideology. 
Here the notion refers to the whole set of representations and justifications 
which underpin a way of conceiving of social change. Three such 
underpinnings are linked to this notion of activation as an ideology: the 
representation of unemployment; the representation of the welfare State; 
and the conception of citizenship. The three are interconnected and it is on 
this last approach to an understanding of activation that we will focus 
below.

If we focus only in two ways to understand activation, as a method and as 
an ideology, the thesis being put forward is that while, on the one hand, 
when the dimension represented is that of activation as a method 
(instruments to enhance participation in the labour market), we observe a 
process of differentiation in terms of the way this notion has been 
interpreted in each national context, a process of convergence is, on the 
other hand, observed at the level of the ideological and ethical opinions 
entailed by this notion. This process of convergence entails a redefinition of 
the 'social question', with a tendency towards a reading of risk (of 
unemployment above all, but also of sickness, poverty, and so on) in 'moral' 
rather than political or social terms. Central to this paradigm is the 
regulation of the behaviour of persons searching for and making themselves 
available for work, work having been converted into a 'duty'. As such, the 
changes brought about by the broadening of the paradigm for intervention 
have to be analysed not only at the level of the content or instruments of 
the measures (introduction of penalty mechanisms, stepping up the terms of 
eligibility for benefits), but also at that of their justification or 
legitimisation, as well as of the conception of social rights which is implied. 
This thesis will be developed in greater detail below.


Divergences in implementation of the notion of activation…
In spite of the general consensus regarding the need to implement the 
principle of activation, when we observe the full range of policies (with 
their widely differing consequences) that are labelled with recourse to the 
notion of activation, we could be forgiven for thinking that we have here a 
pluralist approach to implementation of the concept and hence that there 
exist various models of activation. In particular, the institutional setting and 
employment regime specific to a country will inspire different types of 
active policy, giving rise to divergence in terms of intervention models (path 
dependency). Four types of factors appear particularly important in 
explaining these divergences: the welfare state model (social coverage, 
level of benefits, etc.); mechanisms of labour regulation (centralisation and 
coverage of collective bargaining, legislation, etc.); the employment and 
labour market regime (activity rate, "working poor", bottlenecks, labour 
shortage, rate of long-term unemployment, under-employment, etc.) and 
the type of institutions responsible for policy implementation (degree of 
centralisation of social policy administration, types of partnership, etc.). 
The coercive character of the measures, the balance achieved between 
rights and duties, the quality of proposals, etc. will vary fundamentally 
depending on the institutional context.

These institutional and labour contexts will play a central role in defining 
the instruments to be used in  national activation strategies to regulate the 
behaviour of job-seekers and the way in which the unemployed are 
mobilised and penalised, it is possible to structure the activation policies 
according to two poles, those more focused on incentives ("carrots") and 
those that resort to penalties ("sticks"). These policies differ in terms of the 
extent to which the measures are compulsory, in terms of the  penalty 
mechanisms and the  degree of coercion exercised upon claimants. In 
relation to this dimension, in addition to the predominant mechanisms of 
labour regulation, another important factor is the level of decentralisation. 
Thus we find two poles, one closer to the Continental model, in which fewer 
obligations are laid down, and the other typified by the American model 
with a greater emphasis on negative sanctions and a much more repressive 
disciplinary approach (Barbier in this volume; Lodemel and Trickey 2001). 
Close to this model based on negative sanctions is the British case. Between 
the two extremes lies the Nordic model, based on a mix of positive and 
negative incentives which allows reciprocal involvement (welfare state and 
unemployed person) in the process of labour market integration. In each of 
these countries we thus find a specific balance between rights and duties, 
obligations and responsibilities and services supplied in return. In terms of 
the dichotomy established between rights and duties, it could be said that if 
labour market participation is viewed in the Scandinavian countries 
fundamentally (albeit not exclusively) as a social right (with duties being 
determined in relation to society as a whole), in the English-speaking 
countries participation will be viewed as, above all, a social duty (with the 
emphasis on the rights of society as a whole to protect itself against 
possible parasites).

Lefresne and Tuchszirer (in this volume) stress how, when evaluating 
activation policies as a method, the exclusive focus on the punitive 
character of the measures – or otherwise – precludes the emergence of 
another important question, namely the type of option on offer (quality of 
job offered, relationship to the life path, etc.). In fact, an important 
component of these activation programmes is revision of the mechanisms 
for the regulation of labour (increasing the flexibility of the labour market). 
Accordingly, it is important to emphasise four important criteria to be borne 
in mind with regard to the activation instruments or methods:

?	The quality of provision (stability, type of option on offer): that is to 
say, whether or not a stable job is being offered or whether the 
supply of jobs consists of short-term contracts without any prospect 
of stabilisation. In relation to this question, we can observe a broad 
variety of positions, depending particularly on the predominant forms 
of labour market regulation in each country. We could establish a 
polarity between the Nordic countries, which share policies geared to 
stable incorporation into the regular labour market, and the English-
speaking countries and Spain where the tendency is to incorporate 
the unemployed into a secondary circuit where non-standard forms of 
employment become the norm, thereby contributing to a 
deterioration of the norm at the level of working conditions and 
terms of employment (Alaluf; Lefresne; Darmond, in this volume). In 
this way activation comes to constitute a contribution to a policy of 
labour market destabilisation and deregulation. The position of 
France is somewhere in between the two extremes, while in the 
Netherlands this approach to activation has been accompanied by the 
proliferation of non-standard jobs which have, in the process, 
become subject to new forms of regulation.
?	Generosity of employment policy expenditure  : it is observed that 
whereas activation policies tend in some cases to be accompanied by 
a reduction in public expenditure (Canada; Lescke, Schömann and 
Schömann in this volume), in others they may entail increased public 
expenditure (France).
?	Individualisation of programmes and link with earlier paths. In the 
majority of the countries covered in this book we can observe an 
increasing process of individualisation in the implementation of 
activation measures. As argued by Lindsay and Mailand in this 
volume, there is a trend towards greater individualisation in the 
measures in such a way that, as now happens in Denmark, the 
programmes are accompanied by an individual action plan. In the 
United Kingdom also there is a greater tendency towards 
individualisation of the labour market programmes, even if the 
quality of the options on offer is much more doubtful. The quality of 
these projects depends on the funds available for the programmes 
and on the alternatives in play. 

As a summary of the three first criteria, we could adopt the distinction 
made by Barbier (in this volume) and Lodemel and Trickey (2001) between 
two approaches to the programme: human capital (social investment)/work 
first. In the first case, to which the Nordic countries tend to approximate, 
the activation policies consist in the provision of complex services of a high 
value and over the long term, with high standards for the beneficiaries and 
a good balance between the demands of the individual and those of society. 
In the second case, which would include the American model, social policies 
play a very limited role, the programmes are of low value and geared to the 
short term, being intended to encourage people to seek work and to put in 
place a potential reserve army of labour.

?	Expansion of the activation and comprehensiveness. Bonvin points 
out how in some countries there exists a more universalist vision 
entailing broad coverage, as in the Swedish model, while in others 
access is restricted to specific groups subject to more extreme 
forms of exclusion (or suspicion) and with a lower level of coverage, 
as in the American case. Whereas in the past there was a clear 
dichotomy between workers who were considered potentially 
"morally deficient" (young persons, ethnic minorities, etc.) and 
those groups whose jobless status was, for whatever reasons, not 
called into question (older workers, persons with disabilities, 
mothers of small children, etc.), we are now witnessing a process  
whereby the strategies to control behaviour become universalised, 
thus bringing categories previously exempt from such programmes 
within their scope. Accordingly, we are seeing a process of revision 
of the legitimacy of inactivity, with highly differing results 
depending on social category (Bonvin; Alaluf in this volume).

Accordingly, it has been said that one of the aspects of activation to exhibit 
the greatest dissimilarity from one country to another is in its use as a 
method. However, it is also posible to identify important elements of 
convergence. Most European countries are witnessing a process of revisión 
of the rules governing incentives to work, and limits on unemployment 
insurance (level and duration of unemployment, terms of access, etc.), 
changes in the eligibility criteria (limitation of entitlement to 
unemployment benefits, tightening of availability demands) and in the rates 
and duration of benefits. In the type of approach also (client-centred 
approach: services tailored to fit the individual's needs) some elements of 
convergence may be identified. In a large number of countries it is posible 
to observe a process of "normalisation" of non-standard conditions that has 
gone hand in hand with the spread of these activation measures, thereby 
serving the cause of labour deregulation.
 
On the other hand, significant differences can be observed in the type of 
mechanism used to create incentives for the unemployed, among the target 
groups in question and in the quality of the options on offer. 

It is thus evident that the principle of activation has inspired highly diverse 
forms of path and policy and that we are witnessing a profound divergence 
between the models of activation applied in different European countries. 
These different models and their potential consequences for the worker are 
attributable to the differing institutional configurations predominating in 
each country. Below we summarise some of the main divergent features 
characterising the various conceptions of activation.


… but also processes of convergence in the paradigm for intervention?
In spite of the numerous ways of conducting this process of adapting social 
models to the changes arising from the emergence of a new production 
paradigm, it can be shown that all exhibit a tendency towards convergence 
in terms of processes of justification and rationalisation of change. The 
geographical breakdown which has inspired a large number of analyses, 
according to which the activation models implemented in each country are 
dependent on earlier political traditions and dominant cultural models, is 
analytically one-sided and enables understanding of no more than one 
dimension of the processes according to which social models evolve. A 
historical division would round off this analytical structure, which is why it 
is of interest to effect a diachronic reconstruction of this evolution of social 
models.

There indeed appears to exist in the political community a definite 
consensus concerning the need for a new paradigm of social intervention 
based on activation. In spite of the existence of such different political 
philosophies within Europe, this movement appears to cut across extremely 
different political tendencies. This intervention paradigm enables a 
response to be given to both liberal arguments (reduction of public 
expenditure, strengthening the free play of the market) and social-
democratic arguments (condition of institutionalisation of solidarity). 
Activation gives rise to questions which transcend this ideological division 
between the principle of social equity (favourable to state intervention as a 
means of protecting against risk) and the principle of economic efficiency 
(favourable to rolling back the state). The state is asked to intervene, but 
the type of intervention becomes of a different nature. The purpose of the 
state comes to be seen in terms of the socialisation of behaviour and 
imposition of normative attitudes to work.

It is thus at the level of the ideologies and the normative foundation 
principles introduced by this paradigm that, in my view, we encounter 
factors of convergence. Accordingly, it may be suggested that the paradigm 
of intervention based on activation does not respond so much to objectively 
measurable changes, such as, for example, the increase in unemployment or 
the crisis in social security funding, as to subjectively interpreted and 
socially constructed processes, namely, the representation of 
unemployment and the lack of legitimacy attributed to a specific form of 
social intervention. This accounts for the interest of an analysis of the 
discourse whereby the paradigm of intervention is constructed. As pointed 
out by Magnette (2001), the appearance of a word is a sign that a society 
has come into possession of the concept to which it refers. The purpose of 
the following section is to analyse the process of transformation of the 
discourse of the social question which has accompanied the introduction of 
the paradigm of intervention based on activation and its channelling 
towards a moralistic approach to unemployment. The movement, 
accordingly, is away from the objectifying of unemployment as a social fact 
(Salais, Baverez and Reynaud (1986 ) to the subjectivisation of the 
unemployed person.

3. Changing discourse incorporated into the activation paradigm
The discourse of activation has stimulated a twofold process, a 
terminological change in the means of conceptualising the "social question" 
and a transformation of the established syntax of the dichotomies which 
have structured the social landscape.

Syntactic changes in the discourse on social protection
We are witnessing a process of reversal of the logical order established 
between the different concepts which have structured the syntax of social 
intervention. We are in the presence of three parallel, and yet 
interconnected, processes: the reversal of the order of established 
causalities; the cancellation of earlier conceptual oppositions; the shift in 
locating of the problems and the creation of new dichotomies. This exercise 
in transformation of the established logical order between concepts has 
important ideological implications, insofar as the logical dichotomies 
established between concepts play a central role in the orientation of social 
conflicts (cf. for example, the dichotomy established between capital and 
labour, employer and employee, competition and social justice, employed 
and unemployed, etc.). Let us consider these three processes. 

a) the reversal of the order of established causalities; this applies, for 
example, to the viewing of social protection as no longer the victim and 
consequence of labour flexibility, insofar as it comes to be regarded as one 
of the causes of rigidities on the labour market. The same applies to 
unemployed people, who are no longer the "victims" of the market, but 
rather it is the market which is the victim of unemployment, or increasing 
social expenditure does not create jobs, but leads to both inflation and 
unemployment.  This discursive exercise has important implications in terms 
of what is observed as natural and what as problematic. Thus it is possible 
to observe in the discourse about activation a shift not only in the questions 
that are regarded as problematic but also in those which are taken for 
granted. While the situation of the "non-working poor" and "hidden 
unemployment" is regarded as problematic and is discussed, this is not the 
case in relation to the growing number of "working poor" . The fight against 
hidden unemployment has become one of the most important fronts, even 
though it generates, at least in some countries, precarious types of work. 
The blind insistence on labour market participation can come into 
contradiction with the aim of improving the quality of work (human capital 
as a key factor of economic competitiveness).  Accordingly, this 
terminological and ideological shift in the questions regarded as problematic 
serves the function of depoliticising the management of social conflict in a 
manner that prevents the socio-political character of social exclusion and 
unemployment from emerging. With the promotion of self-disciplined 
subjects, political questions, and the causal nexus which could be 
established with relationships of power and oppression, are cancelled out. 
As a result what are in fact mere political options are presented as 
economic constraints, thereby promoting a depoliticised management of 
social conflict.

b)the cancellation of earlier conceptual oppositions; this applies to the 
oppositions previously established between the principle of economic 
profitability and the notion of justice and social equality, which have 
formed the underlying motivation for social mobilisation. No longer 
regarded as contradictory, these principles are now taken to be 
complementary: social policy becomes a tool of economic development. And 
yet the main concern is not whether the contradiction inherent in the 
established dichotomy between economic and social reality has been 
overcome (or dissolved); the real concern relates to the intrinsic hierarchy 
and asymmetry established between the two levels (Goetschy 2002): 
economic arguments invariably appear to be the main source of inspiration 
for the explanations, with a preference for single-track explanations. The 
interpretation of the operation of the labour market is exclusively based on 
an economic approach according to which the cost of labour and the impact 
of social benefits regulate the behaviour of the worker. An increase in the 
activity rate and in paid employment should therefore, according to this 
approach, enable social security and the social link to become viable. 

The supposed complementarity of economic arguments based on the 
principle of viability (fight against revenue crisis) and arguments based on 
the principle of social equity (fight against social exclusion) can turn into a 
contradiction, since real measures for labour market integration (good 
quality, personalised, offering real alternatives) require an increase, and 
not a reduction, in public expenditure. How is this increase in public 
expenditure, necessary if quality measures are to be put in place, to be 
justified when the trend towards activation has been based, to a certain 
extent, on the need to fight the budgetary crisis of the state?

Running parallel to this process is the tendency to give increasing social 
policy weight to the factors of difference between individuals rather than 
those which make individuals equal, thereby stimulating greater 
differentiation within the workforce between the "deserving" and the 
"undeserving" poor. The "social question" thus comes to be structured 
according to divisions within the workforce rather than by the division 
between capital and labour. 
 
c) the creation of new dichotomies: While, on the one hand, dichotomies 
established in earlier models are being cancelled, on the other hand new 
dichotomies are being put in place. This applies to the active/passive 
dichotomy. The false character of this dichotomy can be observed if it is 
considered that the conception of the welfare state envisaged by this 
discourse is that of a state that is active (economically) and passive 
(socially) (Crespo and Serrano in this volume), or if it is observed that the 
so-called "passive" intervention can be very active insofar as it allows a 
better "active" organisation of the personal project. "Active" measures can 
in turn be very "passive, when they are focused on promoting the mobility 
of workers between statistical categories (trainees, apprentices, part-time 
workers, etc.) without actually generating paths for labour market 
incorporation. In turn, the model of subject underlying these policies – 
active, rational, self-initiated and reflexive – requires, more than ever, 
"passive" measures to enable him/her to gain the decision-making 
autonomy with which to organise a life project. There is emphasis on the 
obligation to take part in the labour market and to accept the options on 
offer (externally motivated subject), while, on the other hand, there is a 
fostering of the notion of individualisation and respect for the self-definition 
of the life project (self-initiated subject). In turn, work is made into the 
condition of the individual's autonomy, but this then becomes normative 
and constraining and is moralistically presented as a duty. Paradoxically, 
the further removed the workers are from the labour market, the stricter 
the norms become. What, one might well ask, is the point in reinforcing the 
work norm when there is a shortage of employment? Work is thus promoted 
less as an interplay of rights and duties than as a disciplinary instrument.

This "economic" activation may entail important components of political 
"passivity" (Crespo and Serrano in this volume). As explained by Dunn, one 
of the conquests of the socialist movements was to break down the frontier 
between the state and civil society by establishing and strengthening the 
means of participation in collective issues. It was this social and political 
participation that inspired the institutionalisation of solidarity achieved in 
the creation of the welfare state. Accordingly, we are moving towards a 
liberal conception of citizenship which regards civil society as a state of 
natural harmony regulated by the complementarity of interests, in which 
individuals, who, by definition, would be workers, would spontaneously 
complement one another without any need for external regulation by a 
political power. 


Semantic changes in the discourse on social protection
Semantic changes represent the other side of the coin of the syntactic 
changes described above. This is giving rise to a major process of 
transformation, at the level of discourse at least, of three of the central 
concepts in relation to which the "social question" has gathered strength 
and expresión in modern societies: the notion of unemployment (problem to 
be fought); welfare state (the legitimate instruments for the fight); and of 
citizenship (the notion of the potential public subject of these measures). 

The first concept, the notion of unemployment, is simultaneously 
dependent on two aspects: the definition of the economic situation and the 
diagnosis and interpretations of the causes of the problem of 
unemployment.

In relation to the first aspect, we can observe the emergence of a discourse 
that defines the economic situation as in a state of change. A new 
vocabulary is gaining ground after the emergence of the (also new concept) 
so-called "knowledge-based society". The metaphor of the knowledge 
society implicitly postulates a theory concerning the direction of social 
change. In the face of technological, economic and social change, presented 
as given and obvious, the "need" for social and institutional modernisation 
(structural reform, more training for new technologies, etc.) is considered 
equally obvious. This modernisation appears, accordingly, as the "natural" 
response to economic change and globalisation. This "naturalisation" of the 
process makes it appear as written into the natural order of things, beyond 
the sphere of human volition. It is thus that the expression "knowledge 
society" comes to designate, rather than a political choice, the technical 
management of change. This stance leads to a historical reconstruction of 
contemporary developments which, insofar as they are construed as natural, 
make modernisation into a necessity (Crespo and Serrano 2002). The social 
model proposed during earlier periods comes to appear as a factor inhibiting 
adaptation to change ("modernisation") in a twofold manner: economically, 
because it increases production expenditure, and, morally, because it 
generates dependency.

We can observe, in parallel, an important terminological shift in relation to 
unemployment. This is no longer conceptualised in terms of lack of 
employment (and therefore, lack of financial resources)  but is coming to be 
understood in terms of lack of employability.  Accordingly, the dichotomy 
which will give rise to state action is not equality/inequality but social 
inclusion/exclusion (Saint Martín 2001). It is less exploitation which 
mobilises solidarity than the notion of exclusion (Castel 1995).

This rearticulation of the notion of unemployment will also have an 
important role to play in the transformation of the concept of welfare 
state. Four aspects of this notion may be identified: dichotomy behind 
welfare intervention, representation of security, role of the State and 
legitimising principles of social intervention.

From a welfare state geared to the equitable distribution of wealth 
(outcomes) we are moving in the direction of a welfare state focused on the 
equitable distribution of opportunities (supplying a same point of departure) 
in accordance with a principle inspired by the idea of a meritocracy (Lind 
and Hornemann, in this volume). Its purpose is not so much to supply work 
as to promote the employability (promotion of technical, procedural and 
ethical competences), flexibility (workers who are mobile, interchangeable 
and multi-skilled) and creativity (in the service of market competition) of 
workers. This means that employment policies are increasingly directed to 
labour supply (employability) and not only or principally to the demand side 
(creation of jobs via macroeconomic policy approaches). Viewed in this way, 
the purpose of social policy is to make labour more flexible, better 
qualified, available and adaptable

The notion of "security" moves on from being understood as "protection 
against risk" to mean the "capacity to adapt to change" by means of a 
process of constant learning. Accordingly, the function of a welfare state is 
no longer to protect the citizen against the risk (or against social risks) 
inherent in a market economy but to forestall (avoid) risk, that is to place 
at the disposal of individuals the tools required to improve their personal 
capital (employability) in order to facilitate their adaptation to an economy 
in a state of flux. The problem to be fought is not so much the lack of a job 
as a shortage of employability.

The third aspect of these changes in the vocabulary of social intervention is 
the notion of citizenship. The social citizenship which structured the 
principles of social intervention, according to which subjects were 
protected from the market, gives way to an economic citizenship based on 
participation in the market (Saint Martin 2001). This economic citizenship 
not only implies the unconditional availability of the worker in relation to 
the market but also requires that the worker offer proof of this availability. 
As such, this intervention paradigm is based on a moralistic notion of work 
that regards it as a duty. Work appears as the prerequisite for access to 
citizenship, implying a paradigmatic change in relation to previous notions 
of citizenship and in relation to the means of exclusion and criteria for 
access to citizenship. Instead of citizenship that is linked principally to the 
idea of social and political participation, we have a notion of citizenship 
focused on the idea of economic participation.

The meaning of the social question is thus coming to be understood in a new 
way. It is no longer taken to mean a guarantee of resources and security of 
livelihood but is coming to be understood as the question of how to foster 
economic participation. From a reference to solidarity (collective 
responsibility) as legitimating public intervention, it has moved on to 
emphasise the responsibility of the individual. This principle of invoking 
individual responsibility concedes legitimacy to the compulsory character 
which is a feature of some intervention programmes. Its basis for 
justification lies in the moral (and hence universal) principle deriving from 
the duties contracted by every individual with the state. It appeals (in a 
coercive manner) to the responsibility of workers, while employers are left 
to demonstrate "moral" responsibility (cf. the popularity of corporate 
initiatives going under the label "corporate social responsibility"). This 
contrast between the strengthening of the coercive elements in the case of 
workers and the growing legitimacy of an appeal to voluntarism ("goodwill") 
on the part of the corporate sector is not, however, regarded as 
contradictory because the two refer to different orders. As such, these 
changes introduced into the social model are based not so much on 
economic pressures as on political choices. The transformation of the 
production model is to be understood more within the order of 
explanations, rather than of reasons, for the renewal ("modernisation") of 
the welfare state.

The table below summarised in a simplified manner these various modes of 
discourse in relation to the "social question" which have characterised 
industrial societies and the direction in which this discourse is moving.

Discursive shift

Meaning of Unemployment:  from the lack of employment to the lack of 
human competencies
 


















Meaning of (social) State: from Welfare State towards Workfare State



















Meaning of citizenship: From social citizenship towards economic 
citizenship (participation in the market)
















4. Conclusions
In the social intervention model based on activation some factors of 
divergence have been observed but also factors of convergence. While the 
policies inspired by this model differ widely, depending on the dominant 
institutional setting of each country, there is also, nonetheless, a certain 
convergent trend, at least in Europe, in terms of the social norms which 
inspire these activation policies.

A first conclusion, accordingly, is that the notion of activation refers not to 
one thing but to many, depending on the context in which it is used. When 
this notion is understood as a method, significant differences are observed 
in the mode of implementation depending, in particular, on the 
predominant model of welfare state, labour market regime and institutional 
players. Even so, it has also been observed that this difference tends, in 
some cases, to turn into a high degree of convergence within Europe, as is 
the case, for example, in relation to the legitimacy of using coercion as an 
incentive to participation in work, or to the tendency to extend the 
categories of person subject to these measures, leading to a questioning of 
the legitimacy of the non-labour market participation of certain groups 
(Bonvin in this volume), or of the management structure of the national 
employment systems, leading to the promotion of local flexibility based on 
partnership relations (Finn 1999; Lindsay and Mailand in this volume) and 
the individualisation of the path to labour market incorporation, or the 
coincidence in the timing of the reforms (Palier 2001).

Apart from this partial convergence and partial divergence at the level of 
the instruments, a tendency is observed towards multi-layering of 
explanations, in a manner leading to recourse to principles belonging to very 
different orders. One dimension in which there appears to be greater 
divergence is the nature of the options envisaged. As such, any evaluation of 
this intervention paradigm requires that the context in which it is used be 
taken into account, as well as the extent to which these policies are used as 
a means of making non-standard forms of employment into the norm.

There is, however, another aspect in which convergence between the 
activation models appears more evident, namely, in relation to the 
ideologies of work that it introduces. As has been discussed, this 
intervention paradigm has accompanied a process of reformulation of the 
key concepts which have underpinned the social question during other 
historical periods, as well as the logical structure employed in the discourse 
that laid the causal paths between these notions. There is thus a tendency 
to conceptualise and rethink the social question in moralistic and 
individualistic terms which make it difficult to devise a political response to 
the introduction of a new production model.

To what extent has the European Union played an important role in this 
process of convergence in some of the dimensions analysed above? Or is it a 
process that has been generated at both levels, national and European, in a 
manner which enables each to reinforce the other? Both arguments are, in 
my view, correct: there is a "supra-European" process of integration of the 
principle of activation, as is evident from some of the earlier chapters, but 
at the same time the European institutions do seem to have been playing an 
important role in the popularisation of this notion of activation. The 
European Union, even though it has no significant powers to regulate social 
questions, in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity and the "open 
method of coordination", is, nonetheless, playing an important role in the 
introduction of political philosophies, of ways of structuring the debate and 
conceptualising the social question (Crespo and Serrano, in this volume). 
Along similar lines, Palier (2001) points out that the open method of 
coordination is directed more to the harmonisation of ideas, visions, 
conceptions, knowledge and norms of action than to institutions or 
legislations, in order to define goals which can converge towards a common 
political vision. The case of activation, discussed throughout this volume, is 
an interesting example of the socialising role played by the European 
institutions.

References

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